Popularity of Fast Food Production Essay Example for Free

Popularity of Fast Food Production Essay Introduction The popularity of fast food production today is a direct result of busy families. In today’s society both husband and wife usually obtain full-time careers. These careers take up much of the family’s time and energy. Children of these families are usually very active in many extracurricular activities such as, Boy Scouts, football, baseball, and basketball. With all of the practice, games, and outings, these activities consume a great amount of the family’s time. In this fast paced life people find it more and more convenient to grab some food on the way home than to prepare a full meal for their family. Families find it more convenient to have someone else do the cooking and cleaning than to take more time away from each other and do it themselves. Single people find it easier to pick-up some fast food than cook a big meal for one person. It is also a result of the most obvious, people these days are just lazier than people in our past were. A person who forgot their lunch at home is more likely to choose fast food over a restaurant because of the cost difference. They could go to a fast foodrestaurant for fewer tk. than they could go to a restaurant where they would spend for one meal. Actually, it is the result of time and convenience and sometimes it is a result of the low cost. Popularity of Fast Food The growing popularity of fast food has brought about ruthless competition in the fast food industry. Fast food chains are constantly trying to please growing consumer demand by selling more food at lower prices. In order to do so, these fast food giants continuously incorporate new â€Å"efficient† business practices which provide better services to customers resulting in bigger sales and larger profit margins. In most cases, these practices are obvious. For instance, precooked hamburger patties, computer systems, and drive-throughs were each introduced to minimize production time in turn allowing for increased sales. Nevertheless, less obvious business practices have also been implemented which most consumers fail to recognize. All together, increased fast food popularity has led to the adoption ofbusiness practices involving the careless treatment of modern day farm animals. * First of all, fast food is prepared from unhealthy meat. Most animals raised as food for fast foodrestaurants come from â€Å"factory farms. † At each of these factory farms millions of animals live torturous lives. Fast food companies choose to purchase from these farms because they minimize all production costs and provide cheaply. * Fast Food Growth- Comparison * History Fast food is the term given to food that can be prepared and served very quickly. While any meal with low preparation time can be considered to be fast food, typically the term refers to food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and served to the customer in a packaged form for take-out/take-away. The term fast food was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam–Webster in 1951. Outlets may be stands or kiosks, which may provide no shelter or seating,[1] or fast food restaurants (also known as quick service restaurants). Franchise operations which are part of restaurant chains have standardized foodstuffs shipped to each restaurant from central locations. he concept of ready-cooked food for sale is closely connected with urban development. In Ancient Rome cities had street stands that sold bread, sausages and wine. Pre-modern Europe. In the cities of Roman antiquity, much of the urban population living in insulae, multi-storey apartment blocks, depended on food vendors for much of their meals. In the mornings, bread soaked in wine was eaten as a quick snack and cooked vegetables and stews later in the day at a popina, a simple type of eating establishment. In the Middle Ages, large towns and major urban areas such as London and Paris supported numerous vendors that sold dishes such as pies, pasties, flans, waffles, wafers, pancakes and cooked meats. As in Roman cities during antiquity, many of these establishments catered to those who did not have means to cook their own food, particularly single households. Unlike richer town dwellers, many often could not afford housing with kitchen facilities and thus relied on fast food. Travellers, as well, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, were among the customers. United Kingdom In areas which had access to coastal or tidal waters, fast food would frequently include local shellfish or seafood, such as oysters or, as in London, eels. Often this seafood would be cooked directly on the quay or close by. The development of trawler fishing in the mid nineteenth century would lead to the development of a British favourite fish and chips, and the first shop in 1860. A blue plaque at Oldhams Tommyfield Market marks the origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries in Britain. After World War II, turkey has been used more frequently in fast food. As well as its native cuisine, the UK has adopted fast food from other cultures, such as pizza, Chinese noodles, kebab, and curry. More recently healthier alternatives to conventional fast food have also emerged. United States. As automobiles became popular and more affordable following the First World War, drive-in restaurants were introduced. The American company White Castle, founded by Billy Ingram and Walter Anderson in Wichita, Kansas in 1921, is generally credited with opening the second fast food outlet and first hamburger chain, selling hamburgers for five cents each. Walter Anderson had built the first White Castle restaurant in Wichita in 1916, introducing the limited menu, high volume, low cost, high speed hamburger restaurant. Among its innovations, the company allowed customers to see the food being prepared. White Castle was successful from its inception and spawned numerous competitors. Franchising was introduced in 1921 by AW Root Beer, which franchised its distinctive syrup. Howard Johnsons first franchised the restaurant concept in the mid-1930s, formally standardizing menus, signage and advertising. The United States has the largest fast food industry in the world, and American fast food restaurants are located in over 100 countries. Approximately 2 million U. S. workers are employed in the areas of food preparation and food servicing including fast food in the USA. FAST FOOD INDUSTRY IN BANGLADESH Fast food culture was started in the early nineties. In Bangladesh it has mainly geared towards the younger end of the market and the employees of the corporate sector. The fast food culture in Bangladesh has taken the country by storm. The first fast food shop started its business in the Bailey road of Dhaka. After that, a number of fast food shops started to grow exponentially in different places of the Dhaka city. Local entrepreneurs are leaders in pioneering the fast food industry of Bangladesh. New brands i. e. Swiss, Helvetia etc. are to name of some Bangladeshi fast food shops formed in franchising system. In early 2000, Bangladesh experienced the entry of the first international brand of fast food franchise in the country. Pizza Hut and KFC entered into Bangladeshi market having franchise with Transom Foods Limited (TFL). Both Pizza Hut and KFC are subsidiaries of the world’s largest restaurant company Yum! Restaurants International. TFL has opened three Pizza Huts and three KFC outlets in Bangladesh in a span of five years. Pizza Hut opened its flagship restaurant in 2003 at Dhaka. Following its grand success in Dhaka, the Chittagong outlet was opened in 2005. The third Pizza Hut restaurant was launched in Dhaka in 2008. Meanwhile, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) perceived as high-quality fast food in a popular array of complete meals to enrich the consumer’s everyday life. TFL successfully launched the flagship KFC in 2006 and gained attention of the people with its taste, high standard of hygiene, cleanliness, interior attractiveness, affordable pricing etc. Following its enormous success in Dhaka, the second and third outlets were opened in 2008. - Globalization In 2006, the global fast food market grew by 4. 8% and reached a value of 102. 4 billion and a volume of 80. 3 billion transactions. In India alone the fast food industry is growing by 41% a year. McDonalds is located in 126 countries and on 6 continents and operates over 31,000 restaurants worldwide. [20] On January 31, 1990 McDonald’s opened a restaurant in Moscow, and broke opening day records for customers served. The Moscow restaurant is the busiest in the world. The largest McDonald’s in the world is located in Orlando, Florida,USA[21] There are numerous other fast food restaurants located all over the world. Burger King has more than 11,100 restaurants in more than 65 countries. [22] KFC is located in 25 countries. [23] Subway is one of the fastest growing franchises in the world with approximately 39,129 restaurants in 90 countries as of May 2009,[24] the first non-US location opening in December 1984 in Bahrain. [25] Pizza Hut is located in 97 countries, with 100 locations in China. [26] Taco Bell has 278 restaurants located in 14 countries besides the United States. [27] Current Market Size Economists at the National Restaurant Association estimated total foodservice sales for 2011 at ? 313 billion, representing a 5 percent increase over 2010. That means consumers spent an average of ? 855 million per day on food away from home. According to the National Restaurant Associations Foodservice Industry Forecast, fast food comprised the largest segment of this market, capturing 47. 8 percent of the Takas spent. The report attributes this success to fast foods ability to meet consumers desire for value and convenience. It was further estimated that at least 64 percent of all fast food purchases were consumed off-premises. According to Technomic, Inc. , a food industry consulting firm, almost half of consumer food Takas are spent on meals prepared away from home. In addition, food expenditures rise significantly as income increases according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Expenditure Survey Data. Industry Trends This significant trend of consumers purchasing prepared meals is so pervasive that the foodservice industry has coined a new term to describe it: home-meal replacement. Many businesses are shifting their focus to meet the growing demands of consumers: * Most supermarkets now include a deli, bakery, and a prepared-foods section. Also, many offer fast-food service. * Boston Market has continued to expand its product lines and market share. * Famous chefs, such as Wolfgang Puck, are offering high-end prepared meals in upscale supermarkets. * Fast-food chains such as KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell have formed alliances to offer multiple product lines under one roof. There are also several economic and cultural trends that have contributed to this growing demand: * Increasing number of women in the workforce * Increasing number of woman-owned businesses * Growing number of higher-income households * Americans working longer hours * Decreasing amount of leisure time * Premium placed on convenience * Trend toward purchasing personal services (i.e. , personal-trainers, house-cleaning services, home shopping services). According to Foodservice Solutions, a hospitality consulting firm: Home-meal replacement is not a luxury today its a necessity. People dont want to take the time to cook; they have too many other things to do. People want high-quality prepackaged foods to make life easier. | Entrepreneur Magazine selected Personal Chef Services as one of the top service businesses to start today: Convenience-craving consumers are always looking for a way to do things better, faster and cheaper. Often, that means turning to a specialty-services entrepreneur who knows how to get the job done right. Those with culinary competence can likely find a hungry clientele among the ranks of Americas busy working families. | Growth Potential of the Market Based on the National Restaurant Associations Foodservice Industry Forecast, the percentage of food Takas spent away from home has grown from 25 percent in 1955 to 50 percent today. More importantly, the proportion of the food budget spent on meals away from home increases significantly as income increases. Households with incomes of ? 70,000 spent 81 percent more per capita (? 1,278 per person) on food away from home than the average income-reporting household (? 705 per person) according to the Consumer Expenditure Survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Also contributing to the potential growth in the market is the rise in affluent households documented by the Current Population Survey from the Bureau of the Census. From 1990 to 1994 the number of households earning ? 50,000 to ? 74,999 increased by 16. 4 percent; households earning ? 75,000 to ? 99,999 increased 36. 1 percent; and households earning ? 100,000 or more increased by 61. 1 percent in the same period. Affluent Households Gaining Ground Change in Number of Households| | Household Income| Increase (Decrease) in Number of Households| Percent Change| Less than ? 35,000| (1,638,000)| -3. 0%| ?35,000 to ? 49,999| (331,000)| -2. 0%| ?50,000 to ? 74,999| 2,310,000| +16. 4%| ?75,000 to ? 99,000| 1,841,000| +36. 1%| ?100,000 or more| 2,496,000| +61. 1%| Total| 4,479,000| +5. 0%| Source: Bureau of the Census A personal chef service is uniquely positioned to take advantage of the increasing demand for fast food, growing health concerns, and the rise in high-income households. Affluent working couples want fast food, but they want it upscale, healthy, and convenient. The founders of Truly Unique Personal Chef Service report that their business has grown 10 to 15 percent every year since opening in 1992. Many of their clients said they were getting bored with going out to restaurants and wanted something different. Customer Profile Creative Cuisines target customer will be families with two working, professional parents who are too busy to cook every night but are fed up with takeout and restaurant food. Their specific demographics are as follows: Household Income: Over ? 100,000 Age: 35 to 55 Education: College degree and/or advanced degree Marital Status: Married couples or high income single Job: Professional status (one or both partners) Children: Preferably ages 7 to 18 Homeowners: Preferably Location: Live in neighborhoods with high concentration of affluent families Customer Benefits Here are just a few of the benefits to customers if they hire Creative Cuisine: * 6 hours per week more free time (1 hour per day cooking/acquiring meal plus 1 hour per week grocery shopping) * Very convenient. * Meals customized to personal tastes * More variety * Health and nutrition benefits * Less stress * Client feels pampered * It makes life easier * Dont have to cook * Less grocery shopping * Minimal kitchen clean-up * Peace of mind The Competition There are a handful of other personal chef services in the metropolitan area; however, since this is still a new business concept, there remains a large untapped market. Most competition for home-meal replacement exists from neighborhood restaurants, upscale fast-food outlets and supermarket prepared meals. Following is a competitive analysis of the various meal replacement alternatives: Fast Food Industry in 2012 at a Glance It is no secret: Americans love fast food. And its not just us! The Golden Arches have spread across the globe, and emerging markets are one of the fastest growing areas in the industry. But the fast food industry is not without its challenges, especially in the United States. From rising food costs, economic recession and changing perceptions about health, many fast food franchises have been feeling some heat. But rather than flee from this challenge, the fast food industry has been adopting new practices and offering new products. Modern society is on the go, and there is plenty of demand for a quick bite at all times of the day. Fast food franchising opportunities exist in the â€Å"traditional† spaces like burgers and pizza, but are also sprouting up in healthy and unique ways as well. The Industry The fast food industry, also known as Quick Service Restaurants (QSR), has been serving up tasty morsels for as long as people have lived in cities. The modern system of fast food franchising is believed to have started in the mid 1930’s when Howard Johnson franchised his second location to a friend as a means to expand operations during the Great Depression. And oh how it has grown! As cars became commonplace, the drive-thru concept brought explosive growth to the idea of food-on-the go. â€Å"Fast Food† was added to the Merrion-Webster dictionary in 1951 and U. S. fast food companies are now franchised in over 100 countries. In the U. S. alone there are over 200,000 restaurant locations! Revenue has grown from $6 billion in 1970 to $160 billion last year, an 8. 6% annualized rate. Fast food franchises focus on high volume, low cost and high speed product. Frequently food is preheated or precooked and served to-go, though many locations also offer seating for on-site consumption. For stands, kiosks or sit-down locations, food is standardized and shipped from central locations. Consumers enjoy being able to get a familiar meal in each location, and menus and marketing are the same in every location. What’s Been Going Wrong? There have been challenges for the fast food industry in recent years that have been pressuring profit margins. The industry as a whole has proven robust enough to withstand these challenges, though some players have done better than others. Over the last decade there has been increased focus on the quality of food served in fast food restaurants. Typically highly processed and industrial in preparation, much of the food is high in fat and has been shown to increase body mass index (BMI) and cause weight gain. Popular books such as Fast Food Nation and documentaries like Super Size Me have increased public awareness of the negative health consequences of fast food. Fast food companies have responded by adopting healthier choices and have had some measure of success, but the shadow of bad press still hangs over the industry. Rising commodity prices have also significantly crunched many fast food franchises. With food and beverage inputs making up approximately 33% of costs, higher prices for livestock, corn, wheat and more have seriously shrunk margins over the past decade. In such a fiercely competitive space it is impossible to force a price increase on customers, so profit margins are often south of 10%. The recent economic recession did lower commodity prices, but the recession brought on its own complications, and now prices for commodity inputs are on the rise again. Fast food had been thought to be largely recession proof, and indeed the industry did not suffer nearly as much as other discretionary spending sectors. In fact, there was some increase in consumer visits as people choose cheaper fast food options over fast casual or traditional restaurant choices. But overall, the recession hurt spending, and consumers overall purchased less with each trip. Fast food franchises fared reasonably well but still felt some pain. Market saturation is also a relevant issue in the fast food industry today, at least in the U. S. There is a McDonald franchise is in almost every town, and it usually sits in a row with several competitors. With so many competitors which offer similar products there are fewer customers per location. Increasingly fast food restaurants are also losing market share to fast casual, a relative newcomer in the restaurant space. Where do we Go from Here? Busy citizens still need quick meal options, and fast food restaurants are fighting these challenges with gusto. Now offering healthy choices to battle the stigma of unhealthy food, some quick service restaurants now focus on fresh or organic products. From franchises focused solely on salads or healthy wraps to the lower calorie options offered at traditional burger franchises such as Wendy’s or McDonald’s, consumers are able to make better choices†¦if they want! Fast food franchises are also focusing on expanding into new product lines, such as the coffee initiative in the McCafe. Intended to offer competition to Startbucks, McDonalds is luring customers back into their stores, hoping they will purchase food as well. Many franchises have been exploring other meal times such as breakfast and the mid-afternoon snack for growth opportunities and to increase real estate utilization. The industry is most effectively battling saturation within the United States by creating a much more diverse range of offerings. Sure, there is a McDonalds in every town, but there are very few crepe franchises†¦yet! From new cultural cuisines to fresh takes on a traditional story, there are many moretypes of quick service restaurants than ever before. The fast food industry is still a large and diverse industry with plenty of opportunity. As one would hope, challenge is being answered with innovation, and fast food franchises are responding with new offerings, pricing and strategies to lure consumers back in. Non-traditional fast food franchises are springing up and gaining traction, and more creativity will always be welcome! Consumers are now on the look-out for new ways to eat fast and healthy. And as the industry continues to evolve and the economy strengthens, fast food franchise profitability will continue to grow. Porter’s five forces industry analysis for Krispy Kreme Saturday, January 29th, 2011 at 9:00 am. What is Porter’s Five Forces? Well I doubt there is any need to explain one of the most famous strategic tools around but just in case, it is a tool to analyse the external industry to find the root causes of profitability. Again seeing an example is useful and below is a five forces analysis of Krispy Kreme. Rivalry among existing competitors (High +++) * High concentration of rivals e. g. Starbucks and local chains * Static market growth * High fixed costs * Perishable products (food and drink) A large number of competitors in the industry are all competing for the same customers. Coffee chains (e. g. Costa, Starbucks) are all competing to be number one in the market and have similar corporate goals. While product differentiation is limited, there is fierce differentiation by product range, brand and store ambience (e. g. seating). There are zero switching costs for customers, which promotes price wars. Market growth is static, which promotes fierce fighting for market share, and there is saturation of competition due to the limited number of prime locations available for outlets. Smaller chains have to pay a premium for prime sites or settle for less desirable locations. Threat of new entrants (Medium +) * Large capital requirements required to build chain of stores * Favourable locations are already occupied * Economies of scale in distribution and raw ingredients (lower per unit costs due to the experience curve) * Product and brand differentiation Capital requirements for individual stores are low, however new entrants wishing to compete on a like basis with national store networks, distribution channels, brand equity development and advertising, face large capital requirements to gain market share. This is reflected in the large number of individual outlets compared with the small number of large, proven top specialty eateries. The UK commercial property market is landlord-driven and controlled; premium locations in the UK are scarce and command high prices with most of the favourable locations within town centres, airports and train stations already being occupied by existing competitors. Threat of substitutes (Medium +) * Large choice of alternatives with similar products e. g. energy drinks, cakes, biscuits, ice-cream, chocolate * No switching costs. Although a consumer can choose from multiple substitutes (e. g. desserts, pastries or drinks), speciality eateries compete based on convenience and opportunity. Most people buy from speciality eateries when travelling, shopping or meeting people. This is evidenced by the location of the eateries, which is concentrated around high footfall locations such as train stations, business districts and shopping centres. For a consumer this becomes a competitive choice rather than a substitute choice (e. g. do I buy a coffee from Starbucks or Costa). Other substitutes come from full menu eateries such as restaurants and fast-food outlets with a smaller threat from supermarkets. Bargaining power of suppliers (Low) * Vertically integrated businesses with only commoditised raw ingredients * Large number of suppliers to choose from and low switching costs Bargaining power of buyers (Low) * Buyers are fragmented and numerous * Although there are no switching costs for the buyer the food and drink market is part of the fabric of society Conclusions and Recommendations. Fast food consumers of Bangladesh, especially the university students, considered brand reputation as the most important factor when choosing fast foods followed by nearness and accessibility, similarity in taste, cost and quality relationship, discount and taste, clean and hygiene, salesmanship and decoration, fat and cholesterol, and self-service. The recent upset in the fast food industry of Bangladesh was created by the discovery of unethical practices conducted by several fast food businesses resulted in consumers putting their trusts on renowned fast food brands only. Thereby it is seen that the fast food houses with reputed brand name and recognition i. e. KFC, BFC, Pizza Hut, Coopers etc. are carrying out their businesses in a usual manner even in the toughest time of the industry. The majority of the fast food brands that passed with flying colors during the mobile courts inspection for quality maintenance were able to either establish or revitalize their brand reputation. Eventually as suggested by the research findings, the university students will select such fast food brands that have brand reputation. Besides the brand reputation, the other important factors were nearness and accessibility, similar taste of fast food, cost and quality relationship, discount and taste. In case of nearness or proximity and accessibility factor, consumers prefer to go to the fast food outlets that are close from their own home or study institutions. It is seen that the fast food shops in Bangladesh has already considering the factors by establishing their outlets near big corporate houses and private universities. Especially, in Dhaka city this practice is seen in Bailey road where majority of fast food shops are located. Near Bailey road, there are 3 girls’ school and collages, and 3 boys’ school and 2 collages in walking distance. Almost similar situation prevails in Gulshan, Banani area of the city where KFC and Pizza Hut outlets are situated near 3 private universities. It is understandable from the situation that the students studying at these institutions consider these nearby fast food outlets whenever they decide to consume fast foods. There is an opportunity here however, for new fast food shops to compete with the existing fast food outlets. Since establishing a new outlet in an already competitive business space is expensive and difficult, the new fast food businesses can introduce mobile fast food outlets. Through mobile fast food outlets, new fast food businesses can deliver their fast foods that are already cooked fresh in their shops, but kept hot and delivered to the students instantly with their own choice of accompanying taste enhancers i. e. tomato sauce, cheese etc. These mobile fast food outlets could be on top of a mini-truck, van etc. The similar taste of the fast food factor refers to the fact that no matter which fast food outlet a particular fast food item is bought from, the taste should be similar. For example, if a chicken burger is bought from an outlet of KFC, the taste would be similar to any other chicken burger bought from any other KFC outlet. The taste could differ from other fast food shops as the different business use taste as differentiating factor in case of food items. But the businesses have to keep in mind that too much difference in taste of similar fast food items makes the consumers confused. The cost and quality relationship is also an important factor considered by the consumers of fast food. If the cost of a fast food item is high, it is usually considered to be carrying high quality and vice versa. So, the businesses of fast food products have to be careful in setting the prices of the fast food items. The pricing should be such as it offers the right amount to value to the consumers in a competitive price that at the same time ensures adequate profit margins for the fast food businesses. Finally in terms of discount and taste factor, the consumers consider the availability of discounts in fast food outlets. Usually these discounts are offered as group discounts i. e. arranging a party or social gathering at a reduced price package etc. Consumers consider this option when choosing fast food products. They might not immediately use this factor but it puts the fast food shop in their consideration set for later use. This study recommends that the fast food producers or distributors at Dhaka city should focus more on the brand reputation, nearness or proximity and accessibility, cost, quality, discount, and similarity in taste factors. If they are able to fulfill these needs, university students of Bangladesh will be induced to buy and consume fast food whenever they are out of their houses. However, there is an ample scope to conduct further study on the preference factors used by the office-goers, housewives, and visitors in buying fast food to determine if there are any more common or unique factors prevailing among these different groups that might be important in making decisions regarding the choice of fast food items in Bangladesh. Abstract. Fast food industry is a high growing sector of Bangladesh. It is concerned with the tastes and habits of the people. The food-taking habit especially in fast food segment has been changing very fast over last decade among the people of Dhaka the capital city of Bangladesh. The reasons could be attributed by the increase of awareness, growth of education, development of information technology, and expansion of television channels and print media in Bangladesh. Hence, this paper aims at identifying the preference factors of fast food consumers living in Dhaka city. This study was conducted among the university students who usually eat fast food at their leisure time. To conduct the study, a total of 250 respondents were interviewed with a structured questionnaire. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analyzing the data. Multivariate analysis technique like factor analysis was performed to identify the preference factors of the fast food student-consumers of Bangladesh. Multiple regressions were run to identify the relationship between the factors identified and the overall preference of the consumers. Results show that the consumers give most importance on brand reputation of the food item followed by nearness to receive and accessibility, similarity of taste with previous experience, cost and quality of the food, discount and taste, cleanliness and hygiene, salesmanship and decoration, fat and cholesterol level, and self-service factors. This study suggests that the brand reputation, nearness and accessibility, similarity in taste, and cost and quality relationship should be emphasized to improve the attraction of the university students towards the fast food items in Bangladesh.

Impacts on Student Learning and Academic Achievement

Impacts on Student Learning and Academic Achievement Education is the most important part of life to uphold intelligence and human can increase knowledge through which an individual move the world for good and sinful on the basis of his wishes. Education, in fact, is one of the major life processes of human beings, as there are other vital processes to live likewise education, are also a vital process in every aspect of human life. (Ahmer. F Anwer. E, 2013) There are many factors which effects on students learning and academic achievement including student performance, teacher role, family support, school environment, peer relationship and the most important factor is the socioeconomic status of parents. According to Mehmood and Saifi (2011), socioeconomic status is a combined measure of an individual’s or family’s economic and social position relative to others, based on income, education, and occupation.† The home environment is influenced by the factors such as parent’s education, occupation, income, and facilities provided to their children. All these factors together can be defined by a single term the â€Å"socio-economic status† (SES) of parents. Thus we can say that the socioeconomic status of parents affects the performance, learning and academic achievement of students. I have selected this topic because of the multiple reasons; the reason is that being a student I have also face many hurdles during my studies till now so those movements force me to choose this topic. Like me, most of the students in our society also face financial problems. So due to low socioeconomic status students cannot compete and unable to achieve their goal. In addition, they become dependent on parents and parents make decisions for them. Moreover many students end up with psychological problems like stress and depression due to the financial crisis and they can’t achieve their ultimate goal. It is generally said that the performance of students in academic depends on the socioeconomic status of their parents. Higher the socioeconomic status the better exposure to learning facilities. If parents are well educated and economically stable they afford their children to get a better education and they always support their children what they want to do. As in literature, it is also stated that well-educated parents ensure their children’s future earning by providing them auspicious learning environment but the students who belong to a low socioeconomic status family even they can’t afford their basic needs. Such students do not have access to learning facilities. (Ahmer. F Anwer. E, 2013). Research shows that students from lower socioeconomic background faced a higher risk of low achievement as compared to students from a higher socioeconomic background. Home environment and parents education are directly effect on students learning. (Nasreen. A, 2013). So the environment at home is the basic learning unit and effects a child interest and ambitions for the future. If we look upon on our society most people are more interested in rich people and they show more respect towards them and their children. So research shows that lower Socioeconomic status students have lower and lower academic achievement as compared with students of higher Socio-economic status. When a teacher makes a decision about students based on their class and Socio-economic status, they are taking the first step in checking students from having an equal opportunity for academic achievement. Ghazi et al. (2013). Due to teachers stigma mostly students suffered from their studies and they cannot show good performance in education. So its educators responsibility to overcome this stigma of poverty and help those students to boost up their hidden talent. Being a citizen of a developing country almost more than half of the total population is living in rural areas and they mostly belong to the low socioeconomic family. As our country is on the list of poor countries where the majority of the population belongs to low socioeconomic status. So it’s very difficult for parents to fulfil all the needs of their children. Poverty is the main problem which has a direct effect on students learning especially when it occurs early in the child’s life. When it remains throughout their life it influences child development in different ways, like the physical and mental health of the child as well as it influences on parents health also. It also influences child affective interactions. According to Karwowski (2012), Parents’ social position influences many aspects of their childrens school careers. The higher social position of parents of children with disabilities may make it easier for them to meet their costly needs, as well as to act as they support their children in contacts with educational institutions and to help them in their studies. I have also experienced this kind of situation in my school life. When I completed my secondary education with good grades, I got admission in Aga Khan higher secondary school but unfortunately, at that time, my father lost his job. At that time I had no any option to get admission even I couldn’t continue my studies and I missed one year and I felt at that time. Even I didn’t talk to my family members and it was a moment of disappointment for me and the family as well. At that time I consulted a counsellor who advised me to continue my studies in another college. After all these situations I realized the importance of socioeconomic status.at that time I became very sad because it was very difficult for me to cope with that situation. Due to the economic crises, I had to leave my previous school which was at the top level in our area. In literature, it is also stated that parents income level is an important factor that affects the academic achievement and performance o f their children. If the parents earn good and adequate than there would be less stress for the parents as well as for their children. They will provide learning resources easily to their children. While parents with low income, they cannot afford easily their children such a learning environment which becomes a barrier in the learning process. (Ahmad. I Khan.N, 2012). In addition, low income of parents also leads to conflicts in families due to lack of access to basic needs of their children. So the students who belong to a low socioeconomic status they cannot get a quality education and they cannot access new technology facilities like the internet to get information and they are unable to acquire new technology. As in a research among the students of a university in Sargodha shows that students who are getting facilities of new technology show high grades and they show better performance as compared to those students who belong to low socioeconomic status. Azher et al,. (2013). Another factor which affects students learning and academic achievement is parents education. Educated parents can easily understand the basic needs and important resources for their children. For the progress of any individual education plays a vital role in their life. According to Ahmad and Khan (2012), parent’s education level play an important role in the academic performance of their children. Because educated parents can easily manage the difficulties in any mode of their children’s education and they know how to encourage to create interest in the academic performance. Educated parents can easily manage their timetable to check and balance their daily activities.in addition, especially mother education is very important for child development which has a big effect on a child’s performance and academic achievement. According to Lacour. M Laura. D (2011). It is stated that mother education has an important effect on children’s score rather than parents income. The mother’s educational level has 20% higher efficiency than the father’s education level on the academic achievement of students. Another negative effect of low socioeconomic status is the cognitive development of children. Most parents use alcohol and other substance like cigarettes to cope up with stress during financial crises as I encountered such a client in my neighbour who always drinks alcohol when he faces any problem. He has two children and both are not good at their studies. Both of them always missed their classes and they even cannot solve simple mathematics problems. According to Brogan (2009). The families among low socioeconomic status there are more incidents of substance abuse, which effects on their child’s cognitive development. Especially if any mothers use alcohol during pregnancy their children are more prone to attention problems and the children with premature birth develop neurological problems like mental retardation. They also cause lessened brain development. All these problems lead to learning and performance disabilities which effects on academic achievement of children. Being a nursing student it’s our responsibility to teach about the importance of education for the better development of child and family. Another important factor is parent’s income which influences a student’s performance, therefore, it is recommended that the government should take some serious initiatives to provide jobs to people and raise the socioeconomic status of people. The government should provide financial support and should give scholarship especially to those who cannot afford the expenses of education. Mass media also play an important role in the awareness among people regarding the poor literacy condition in our country on account of socioeconomic problems.in addition, we can counsel students to do extra efforts along with their studies so that they don’t have to compromise with their studies. In conclusion, I want to say that keeping the view of the above discussion there is a direct relation between socioeconomic status and students learning and academic achievement. Especially the parents income and education level which has a great impact on children academic achievement. Therefore it’s very important to raise the socioeconomic status of people so they can easily afford their children education expenses. For this, we can have interventions individually and on government level like educating parents, mass media awareness, and scholarship etc. As it is stated in a study which is conducted in International Islamic University Islamabad that socioeconomic status has a significant impact on students learning. Akhter (2012).

Cooperative Learning in Mathematics Essay -- Math Education Learn Educ

Cooperative Learning in Mathematics There have recently been many new trends towards the use of cooperative learning in many classrooms, particularly in mathematics classrooms. Cooperative learning involves students working together to accomplish shared goals. In this type of situation, students must feel they can only reach their learning goals if the other students in their group also reach their own learning goals. Students have to understand their achievements are interrelated. Cooperative learning helps students to fully understand the mathematical concepts and assists them in developing social skills that will take them through life. There are different methods of teaching, in addition to cooperative, such as competitive and individualistic. In competitive learning, students are graded on a curve, which means they have to work against each other and try to work faster and more accurately than their fellow students. In individualistic learning, students work towards goals that are separate from their peers. When working on their own, they can work on their own pace, and work for their own set of goals. (Johnson 104). When using cooperative learning, it includes characteristics of both individualistic and competitive learning. In order for a cooperative learning environment to be most effective, there needs to be group rewards along with individual accountability. When each individual succeeds in their group, the group is rewarded; this prevents certain students from dominating the work. There are different methods for cooperative learning that incorporate individual and group rewards. One such method i s Student Teams– Achievement Divisions (STAD). With motivation to win, the groups compete ag... ...athematics. The students develop social skills and learn to work as part of a group. This greater understanding of mathematics and the social skills will stick with the students for the rest of their life. Works Cited Bol, Linda, Nunnery, John A., and Whicker, Kristina M. â€Å"Cooperative Learning in the secondary mathematics classroom.† The Journal of Educational Research. Sept./Oct. 1997. (p. 42-8). Leiken, Roza, and Zaslavsky, Orit. â€Å"Cooperative Learning in Mathematics.† Mathematics Teacher. March 1999.(p. 240-6). Lew, Marvin and Mesch, Debra. â€Å"Isolated Teenagers, Cooperative Leanring, and the Training of Social Skills.† The Journal of Psychology. (p. 323-333). Johnson, David W., and Johnson, Roger T. â€Å"Using Cooperative Learning in Math† Teaching and Learning Middle Grade Mathematics.-Student Resource CD. Key College Publishing. 2004.

Soy Protein: Can It Really Prevent Cancer? Essay -- Research Biology E

Soy Protein: Can It Really Prevent Cancer? Society possesses a natural fear of the disease cancer. Even though this term is common, uncertainty surrounds its meaning. What exactly is cancer? A simple definition for a complicated disease is this: abnormal cell growth. Cancer can develop in just about any part of the body, and as abnormal cells grow, they crowd and destroy healthy tissue. This disease is not infectious, for if it were, a vaccination would have probably been developed by now. However, extensive research is continuously being conducted to find a cure or more effective treatments for this mysterious disease. "Evidence shows that lifestyles and diet are mostly responsible for the different cancer rates around the world." The following information discusses possible cancer prevention by the consumption of soy products. Again, a familiarity with the studied term is necessary. What is soy? "Soy" comes from soybean, a legume which is native to Northern China. It is often called a complete protein. This is because it is the most complete protein source from vegetables and is as good as animal protein in meat products. Soy protein, which has been stated to be of "highest caliber," contains many essential nutrients. It has been stated that populations who regularly include soy protein in their diets and reduce meat intake are generally healthier in that their risks for certain diseases are reduced. These include cancer, especially breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men. The basic assumption that has been made about soy is that its consumption as a dietary staple reduces the risk of a variety of cancers, such as breast cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer. A relat... ... Works Cited Barnes, S., et al. "Soy Isoflavonoids and Cancer Prevention." Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 401. (1996): 87-100. Barnes, Stephen. "Anticancer Effects of Genistein." The Journal of Nutrition 125 (1995): 777S-783S. Bergan, R., et al. "Genistein-stimulated Adherence of Prostate Cancer Cells Is Associated with the Binding of Focal Adhesion Kinase to Beta-1-integrin." Clinical & Experimental Mestastasis 14(4) (1996 Sept.): 389-398. Messina, M. J., et al. "Soy Intake and Cancer Risk: A Review of the In Vitro and in Vivo Data." Nutrition & Cancer 21(2) (1994): 113-131. Steele, Vernon E., et al. "Nonisoflavone Soybean Anticarcinogens." The Journal of Nutrition 125 (1995) 713S-716S.

History Of The Jet Engine :: Aviation Engines

Evolution of the Jet Engine Thought the course of time man has constantly sought to better both himself and mankind through creation and invention. From the first time a caveman rubbed two sticks together and discovered fire to the design and development of the Saturn 5 rocket which propelled by that same fire carried man from the earth to the moon. One can argue over whether on not this invention or that was the greatest. I intend to focus my attention on evolution of just one of those technologies the jet engine, and show the importance of its impact in our world. In the early 1920’s, new technology was being developed to enable aircraft to fly higher and faster. This early development of aircraft technology was hindered by the depression until World War II pulled the United States out of economic hardship. Jet engine design has been critical in keeping aircraft in line with other countries’ developing technology. All over the world, countries were racing to be the first with a jet engine powered aircraft. During World War II the quest for air superiority resulted in the need for better, faster aircraft. As a result, the jet engine was created. A simple jet engine can be described as a device that compresses large amounts of high velocity air which mixes with fuel, ignites, and then is propelled out the aft end of the aircraft. Able to keep itself going once started, the jet engine is truly a marvel of the twentieth century. Two people are credited with this wonderful invention: Dr. Hans von Ohain (German) and Sir Frank Whittle (British). Ohain actually created the first engine while Whittle was the first to acquire a patent in 1930. However, Ohain’s jet was the first to fly in 1939, while Whittle was able to get his in the air in 1941. Ohain’s jet engine was tested in a lab in Sep. 1937 and first tested on a plane developed by Ernst Heinkel the Heinkel He178 on Aug. 27th, 1939. The Firm, Power Jets Ltd., got a contract for Whittle’s engine, the W1, July 7th, 1939. The Maiden flight was on May 15th, 1941 with pilot Lieutenant P. E. G. Sayer flying the craft, the Gloster E28/39. The craft flew at roughly 400 mph and the engine produced 1000lbs.

Disneyland Resort Paris

Disneyland Resort Paris: a development after understanding local cultures The case Disneyland Resort Paris: Mickey Goes to Europe introduced readers to the development of Disneyland Paris during fifteen years. Even though Disneyland Paris had a terrible start in 1994, it had a great improvement and bright future in 2007. The reason for its failure and success is the same: culture. Forgetting to respect local culture caused Disneyland to lose market and revenue in Paris, while adjusting its operations with culture issues put Disneyland Paris in a successful position. The success of Disneyland in AmericaAs a cartoon company which was founded in 1923, Walt Disney Company started its business in America. During the period to develop its business to Americans, Disney created its core values such as innovation, fun and magic. Disney movies which evoked these values are welcomed by audiences and make the company the world leader in animation (Martha, 2011). For the same reason, Disneyland t heme park, a resort to make â€Å"magic† real and tangible, also had big success in America. The universal strategy of Disney Company is to use Disneyland resorts to connect the real world and the magic world.First, the company shows audiences a wonderful and magic world in its animated movie. Second, with the popularity of the movie, the animated world reappears in Disneyland resorts by those famous characters and sidewalks (Martha, 2011). All these factors can provide guests with comfortable experiences of magic and fun that helping them to forget worries in the real life. To adopt above strategy in operation, Disney cares about both the internal and external management. For internal management, Disney offers its employees excellent treatments which create a high employee loyalty to the company.For the external management, Disneyland cares about details in its management and confirms that it transfers core values to its customers through quality services. In this way, Disne y received high customer satisfaction and won great success in America. Both the core values and operation strategy are universal about Disney. Factors such as fun, magic and innovation can capture positive emotions of human beings and make them be touched. Then Disney uses its high quality services to transfer these emotions to guests in the theme park and drive them to become loyal customers.This is the reason Disneyland did great job in California and Tokyo. However, Disney faced failures in Paris at the beginning of the resort opening. The Reason of Failure in Paris The reason of failure in Paris is forgetting to consider the effects of culture different. Disney is not an aggressive company that explores new market blindly. It aware the risk of operating a theme park out of America and thinks carefully about how to spend money and transfer core values to guests in Tokyo. Tokyo Disneyland is the most profitable Disneyland in the world.The park in Tokyo completely copied the busin ess model of the American one. However, due to the success case in Tokyo, the company forgot to consider about cultural differences and lost its market in Europe. What the company states is the strategy works in Tokyo will also works in Europe. However, Disney forgot to consider two kinds of culture differences, the difference between culture in Europe and Japan and the difference between culture in America and Europe. The former difference means even though America model worked in Japan, the same model may not success in Europe.For example, customers in Japan like their park have â€Å"the real thing† (Martha, 2011) not means customer in Europe will also welcome it. For the similar reason, a mode works well in America may not also works well in Europe. For example, the wine issue put Disneyland in Paris in a negative position and brought it infamous effects. An Effective Improvement to Make the Resort to Survive in Europe Disneyland in Paris had five approaches to improve it s business: * Change the name of the park from â€Å"Euro Disney† to â€Å"Disneyland Paris†.This approach weakened the image of park in Europe and strengthened the image of a theme park in Paris . As a result, the effects of culture differences will have lower power to stop guests feel Disney’s core value. * Reduce cost to increase net income under a condition of lower revenue of Disneyland Paris. The culture in Europe restricts the ability of Disney to absorb money form customers. Since it’s hard to change the culture in Europe, a better choice is to adjust financial approach to reduce the lose caused by culture. Redesign services to attract more customers. Disney studio park and Val d’ Europe are two examples of services which capture more customers. The former one tries its best to include European elements in it. The approach provides guests something they were familiar with and attract more tourist to visit the Disneyland park. The latter one created a center to draw customers’ attention and affected their travelling preferences. Both of these two buildings were near Disneyland Paris and work as a transportation to connect the European culture and â€Å"Disney culture†.Buildings with familiar elements will make guests feel comfortable and reduce their unfriendly feelings to Disneyland Park. Therefore the park will get a chance to cross the cultural boundary and bring its customers excellent experiences. * Improve services to bring visitors back. In addition to existing services, Disneyland is doing kinds of improvements to satisfy customers and making them find new attractions in the park. This approach will increase the customer loyalty and get them back to the park. In my opinion, Disneyland Paris did right process to resolve its crisis.At one side, Disney didn’t give up its core values. At the other side, the park improved its operation and management to create an environment which can comfort Eu ropean visitors and expend businesses. Disneyland Paris indentified its main problem, cultural blunder, clearly and reacted to it quickly. Take the Walt Disney studios park as an example, this approach adopted the MBI model perfectly. * Mapping: Notice the culture differences between America and Europe. * Bridge: In â€Å"prepare stage†, Disneyland Paris already understood its customers and plan to use the studio to make it understood by customers.In â€Å"decenter stage†, Disney Company evolved European elements in its products since the empathy made it to offer customers services they like. In â€Å"recenter stage†, an example of inviting European designer to design stunt show expresses its high emotion of establish a common reality (Martha, 2011). * Integrate: the opinion of Peter McGrath (Martha, 2011) illustrates the studio park has high awareness of handle cultural differences and face new cultural challenges. Disneyland Paris also adopted MBI model to its other services and the park generated customer loyalty successfully.The company reprogrammed and reopened existing star attractions to bring visitors back and also draw attention of new customers. The high benefits Disney Paris offering to its employees creates a positive internal company culture and helps employees to provide visitors with high quality services. The high quality services with innovation transferred core values of Disneyland to its customers. For example, the â€Å"summer camps† service, which launched in 2003, brought low cost and high return to the company and at the same time welcomed by customers. A balance of local culture and America StyleI will advise Disneyland Paris to adapt the park in a balance of local culture and American style. Completely copying American model is proved to be a failure case therefore moving Disneyland Paris to this mode is just putting the company in the wrong track of development. A total local cultural mode will cause the pa rk lose its characteristics. If Disneyland doesn’t have any Disney features, why customers prefer Disneyland rather than its competitors? At one side, features like Disney characters and buildings differentiate Disneyland from other theme parks.At the other side, the company needs to design and organize services in a more local way to guarantee that its core values can be transferred and accepted by visitors. To connect Disneyland with local events will be a good choice. For example, Paris will hold music festival every July. Sending band which consisted with Disney characters to play music on the festival can remind people the existence of the park and attract them to visit it. In 2009, German visitors are just 3% of whole visitors (Maznevski, 2009). Therefore to increase German visitors can extend visitors and boost revenue.When Oktoberfest festival is held in German, Disneyland Paris can also hold beer festival in the park to make Germany feel happy and glad to visit the p ark as well as spend money. Bibliography Harry w. Lane, Martha l. Maznevski, Joseph J. DiStefana, Joerg Dietz. (2011). International Management Behavior. Chippenham, Great Britain: CPI Abtone Rowe. Karsten Jonsen, Martha Maznevski. (2009, 06 25). Disneyland Paris – ANNO 2009. Lausanne, Switzerland. Karsten Jonsen, Martha Maznevski. (2011). Disneyland Resort Paris: Mickey Goes to Europe. In M. l. Harry w. Lane, International Management Behavior (p. 137). Chippenham: CPI Antony Rowe.

Public Administration and Management Essay

Introduction Public administration in Britain takes place through a variety of state agencies with varying histories, functions, as well as patterns of political control and accountability. These comprise the civil service; a large number of local bureaucracies serving an elective system of local government; another massive organization administering the National Health Service (NHS) and, under the acronym ‘quango’, a diverse range of organizations responsible for a assortment of administrative, consultative, advisory in addition to regulatory roles. In addition there is a compound of tribunals, inquiries, an ombudsman system and the judiciary, which together dispense administrative justice. The architecture of the modern state was drawn mainly in the nineteenth century, when the rising industrial bourgeoisie required a means of supporting the emerging capitalist economy. A number of major reports and Acts of Parliament offered blueprints for a competent and meritocratic modern civil service and the system of carefully managed municipalities. Reconstruction following the Second World War added a new layer to the modern state with the making of a inclusive welfare state, including the NHS, and the nationalization of a number of chief industries in the form of public corporations. From the 1980s an additional chapter was opened, as the post-war Keynesian beliefs were challenged in the rise of neo-liberalism under the government of Margaret Thatcher. The bureaucratic terrain was re-landscaped, part of a procedure distinguished as a ‘hollowing out’ of the state (Rhodes 1994; 1997). Even though talk of reform had long featured on the political program, the public bureaucracies had established a renowned capacity to resist change. However, this time the thoughts were backed by resolute political will. A significant intellectual dynamic came from interpretation based on rational individuality under the name of public choice theory (Niskanen 1973). This was usually suspicious of public bureaucracies, which were seen as principally self serving. Much of the practical reform in structure and management was stirred by the model of the private sector, where it was reasoned that the restraint of the profit motive secured greater efficiency, effectiveness as well as economy. The oratory spoke of ‘reinventing government’ (Osborne and Gaebler 1992); though to critics it emerged as abandoning government in an anti-statist crusade. A program of privatization cut sheathe through the state industrial sector while giving rise to a new generation of regulatory agencies. Much of the civil service was recast into a compound of agencies with a greater level of autonomy from the centre, and the collection of quangos began to grow as responsibilities for a variety of functions were transferred from the realm of elected local government. Indeed, processes of market testing as well as compulsory competitive tendering saw the stipulation of certain services passing from the state altogether and into the hands of the private sector. The arrival of a Labour Government in 1997 did little to stem the tide of change. Furthermore, this new government occasioned further seismic shifts through devolution to Scotland and Wales. Great Britain includes the nations of England, Wales and Scotland, while the United Kingdom extends the embrace to Northern Ireland. These cultural forms were recognized in an outline of administrative regionalism. For long this motivated little political feeling; only in Northern Ireland were separatist tensions felt. Nonetheless, during the 1980s, nationalist movements gathered speed in both Wales and Scotland; this sequentially generated some pressure towards English regionalism. Thus the state has been forced to concern itself with issues of territorial management and make some chief allowances to diversity (Thompson, 1997). Rooted in a history dating from the take-over of Ireland by the Tudors and re-conquest first by Cromwell and later by the Protestant William of Orange, Northern Ireland dwarfs all other territorial problems of UK Government. Coming to office in the year 1997, Tony Blair’s first official journey was to Ulster and Sinn Fein was invited into new peace talks. After indirect negotiations, which included some mediation from US President Bill Clinton, an agreement was reached which included: A Northern Ireland assembly of 108 elected by PR with legislative powers under an all-party executive A North-South Ministerial Council to reflect on issues for instance cross-border co-operation The Irish Government to give up constitutional claims to Northern Ireland and Westminster to reinstate the Government of Ireland Act A Council of the Isles comprising members from the north and south of Ireland and the Scottish and Welsh assemblies There were also to be releases of prisoners in addition to a decommissioning of arms. The agreement was effectively put to referendums in Northern Ireland and the Republic in May 1998. Elections were held, but advancement began to slow down. Scotland and Wales In the UK mainland, Wales and Scotland had been governed as provinces from London, with Secretaries of State in the Cabinet and Grand Committees in Parliament. Public administration in the provinces came under Whitehall outposts, the Welsh and Scottish Offices. Nonetheless, from 1979 an extremely centralizing government heightened a mood of separatism, placing strains on the veracity of the state which were to go off in tectonic constitutional shifts in 1998. The configuration of the two new assemblies was intended to release a safety valve on the separatist pressure. On the other hand, opinion polls began to show rising support for the SNP and its objective of complete Scottish independence in the background of the EU. Comparable murmurings were heard in Wales, a country that had done very fine from its European involvement (Jones 1997). Labor’s central machine showed an enthusiastic concern to have its chosen men as the leaders of the provincial parties (and hence first ministers in the assemblies) representing a keen aspiration to keep the provinces under the Westminster wing. Nonetheless, when the elections by the additional member system (d’Hondt version) to the new assemblies were held on 6 May 1999, the Labour Party, with 28 of the 60 seats in the Welsh Senedd, and 59 of Scotland’s 129-seat assembly, failed to win unconditional majorities in either province. A future of alliance government loomed. furthermore, with 17 seats in Wales and 35 in Scotland, the nationalists were second placed in both cases, possibly presaging further separatist pressure (Drewry, & Butcher, 1991). England Devolution debate reverberated into England with requirements for regional independence. A political split was opening as from the early 1980s voting patterns gradually more revealed the Conservatives as a party of the southeast. past the ballot box an economic split yawned as huge deindustrialization and the collapse of mining confounded communities in the north. The economic forecasting organization, the Henley Centre, found per capita income in the south-east to be 20 per cent higher than in the rest of Britain (Wagstyl 1996). A European Commission report of November 1996 established that, while post-war economic revival had closed the poverty gaps between Western Europe’s states, wide dissimilarities remained between regions, the greatest being within the UK.   The British public sector, with numerous of its customs cast in the nineteenth century, has for long been criticized as managerially incompetent. The post-war era saw repeated efforts at reform all through the public sector, though few made any lasting notion before the 1980s. Ever since this time there has been something of a revolution as what was phrased a ‘new public management’ movement became a familiar international influence (Hood 1991; Lowndes 1997). It was to send shivers to the very foundations of the state, reforming structures as well as practices. The nineteenth-century reforms recognized a custom of elitist generalism and social superiority in which Oxbridge graduates schooled in the classics were to lead the upper reaches of the state bureaucracy. This was to stimulate substantial post-war debate. The onset in office of a Labour Government in 1964 pledged revolution and the 1968 Fulton Committee set up by Harold Wilson criticized the ‘cult of the amateur’. It resulted in the formation of a Civil Service Department (CSD) in Whitehall to supervise managerial reforms all through the service, and the establishment of a Civil Service College to offer continuing operating training. One proposal which failed to stimulate was that entrants should hold relevant degrees: the place of the ‘generalist’ administrator remained unassailed. In the 1990s, Richards (1996) initiated the generalists’ promotion prospects still significantly brighter than those of the specialist. In the interim, the Civil Service College had fallen well short of the determined position envisaged for it and the CSD had been ignominiously wipe out from the bureaucratic map. Not until Thatcher took the bit between her teeth did a grave breakthrough come. In her first year of office an Efficiency Unit was set up headed by Sir Derek Rayner of the retail giant Marks & Spencer. He initiated a system of ‘scrutinies’ in which competence teams studied recognized practices and suggested reforms, an initiative which achieved more than anything before (Hennessy 1990:619). Even so, the reforms did not go far enough for those of a fundamental bent. An even greater culture shock was to come when Robin Ibbs took over the Efficiency Unit and produced the 1988 report, ‘Improving Management in Government: The Next Steps’. This was the report which led to the recasting of the Civil Service as executive agencies. Despite its structural impact the intent in this initiative was essentially managerial (Elcock 1991:236-42). Once established, the new chief executives were given a free rein to introduce a wide range of management practices such as performance-related pay and short-term contracts in the quest for efficiency. A special unit was created in the Cabinet Office to maintain the reforming impetus. The government also assisted developments by abolishing the Northcote-Trevelyan model of centralized recruitment through the independent Civil Service Commission for some 95 per cent of appointments. Responsibility was to lie with the various departments and agencies themselves. A Recruitment and Assessment Service was created to offer central assistance if required although, amidst heated controversy, this itself was privatized in 1991. The result was a variety of terms and conditions of employment throughout the service. There were limits to the revolution. Government radicals had wanted the reforms to reach the senior mandarins, subjecting them to short-term contracts, market-testing and large-scale appointments from the private sector on the ‘revolving-door’ principle. For most civil servants, anticipating a life insulated from the chill winds of the market economy, much of the managerial reform process was demoralizing. While academics in the right-wing think tanks applauded the changes, many other academic critics saw in the quest for efficiency serious threats to the fundamental public service ethos (Elcock 1991:188; Chapman and O’Toole 1995). There was some feeling that the reforms reflected governmental antagonism towards civil servants as much as a quest for improved management; the term ‘deprivileging’ was sometimes heard. The Treasury and Civil Service Select Committee noted that in 1992/3,  £768 million worth of activities out of the  £1.119 billion subjected to market testing were contracted out without civil servants even being allowed to make in-house bids. The traditional management structure in local government entailed separate departments responsible for the provision of various services, each headed by a chief officer and responsible to a particular council committee. A legion of post-war critics saw this as slow, cumbersome and diffuse. A major debate in the 1960s concerned a corporate management model in which a powerful chief executive would displace the traditional town clerk to give strong leadership at the centre. Councilors, faced with a palpable loss of power, proved resistant and traditional practices persisted, although often under the camouflage of some changed nomenclature. New impetus came with the Thatcher regime and was elaborated under John Major (Kingdom 1999). Looking as always to the private sector, much was made of the concept of the ‘enabling authority’; the emphasis was not on the direct provision services but on contracting them out to the private and voluntary sectors. Such a practice was by no means new but, from the late 1980s, it became central to government policy, with compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) introduced for an ever-widening range of functions, from refuse collection to professional, legal and accounting responsibilities. A policy of care in the community, coming into force in April 1993, added impetus by requiring local authorities to make use of private and voluntary-sector residential homes for their widening community care responsibilities. In opposition Labour had poured scorn on the policy; in government it maintained the contracting out principle under the term ‘Best Value’. The managerial implications in CCT were profound. Although local responses varied with political complexion, few authorities could remain untouched by the culture shift. Even where there was no stomach for contracting out, teams of officials had to endure considerable stress in producing competitive in-house bids in order to keep their jobs. Colleagues found themselves in competitive relationships with each other, some becoming contractors and others providers (Audit Commission 1993). Moreover, the drawing up and monitoring of contracts required the skills of lawyers and accountants rather than elected councilors. Major’s Environment Secretary Michael Heseltine produced a consultation document, The Internal Management of Local Authorities, stressing that the control and co-ordination of large workforces would no longer be the central management task. The paper looked for speedy decision-making and strong leadership, advocating local cabinets, appointed council managers or, most radically, directly elected US-style mayors with high public profiles. The latter had held little appeal to Heseltine’s party but, in a February 1998 consultation paper, Modernizing Local Government: Local Democracy and Community Leadership, the new Labour Government declared itself ‘very attracted’ to the model of a strong directly elected mayor (para 5.14). The promised Greater London Authority was seen as a suitable flagship for innovation. Here the mayor, served by three or four deputies and a small bureaucracy of around 250, would set policy objectives and an annual budget (of some  £3.3 billion). The role of the councilors in the assembly would be approving rather than determining the budget. Responsibilities of the new mayor would include public transport, the fire brigade, strategic planning, trunk roads, traffic management, the ambulance service and possibly the arts. In addition, responsibility for the Metropolitan Police Force would be taken over from the Home Secretary. The potential power of the new office would be considerable, and both main parties showed alarm as the names of some of their more maverick members were canvassed. For Labour leader Tony Blair, the nightmare candidate appeared to be the left-wing Ken Livingstone, ex-leader of the old GLC and extremely popular with Londoners. The nightmare became reality in May 2000. There was an expectation that this model would be extended to other major cities. All 494 councils were asked to submit plans to central government showing how they would separate the decision-making role from that of representing constituents. Three options were offered: †¢ a leader elected by the council who would appoint a cabinet from the council A directly elected executive mayor who would appoint a cabinet from the council A directly elected mayor working with a full-time manager appointed by the council Conclusion The general election of May 1997 saw the end of an 18-year period of Conservative rule during which the administrative landscape of the state had been radically recast. Few corners of the public sector could be said to have escaped some aspect of the winds of change which included privatization, agencification, CCT, market-testing, public-private partnership ventures, the emergence by stealth of the ‘new magistracy’ and the general spread of a private-sector managerial ethos. In opposition, the Labour Party had maintained a prolonged crusade against most of the reforms, and many supporters had looked forward to the advance of the political bulldozers to level the ground. In power the party kicked off with a number of significant constitutional moves over devolution, the electoral system, the ECHR, the House of Lords, the Bank of England and the reform of local government. However, the party in power termed itself New Labour and preservation orders appeared over the recently privatized sector; indeed further privatizations were soon mooted in the cases of the Royal Mint and Air Traffic Control, and the remodeled Civil Service and NHS. In local government grant-maintained schools remained under the term ‘foundation schools’, and the replacement of CCT with ‘Best Value’ was, in the eyes of critics, little more than cosmetic (Theakston, & Fry, 1998). Moreover, there remained something very much like a capping regime over local government expenditure. In managerial terms, the three Es of effectiveness, economy and efficiency continued as the holy trinity. As the millennium closed it was safe to say that, while the British public sector would remain in the state of flux allowed by its vague and unwritten constitution, the substructure had seen some tectonic shifts from which there would be little reversal.   Reference: Audit Commission (1993) Realising the Benefits of Competition: The Client Role forContracted Services, London: HMSO. Birkinshaw, P. (1997) ‘Freedom of information’, Parliamentary Affairs, 50, 1:164-81. Chapman, R.A. and Toole, B.J. (1995) ‘The role of the civil service: a traditional view in a period of change’, Public Policy and Administration, 10, 2:3-20. Elcock, H. (1991) Change and Decay: Public Administration in the 1990s, Harlow: Longman. Hennessy, P. (1990) Whitehall, London: Fontana.   Hood, C. (1991) ‘A public management for all seasons’, Public Administration, 69, 1: 3-19. Jones, B. (1997) ‘Wales: a developing political economy’, in M. Keating and J. Loughlin (eds), The Political Economy of Regionalism, London: Frank Cass. Kingdom, J. (1999) ‘Centralisation and fragmentation: John Major and the reform of Local Government’, in P. Dorey (ed.), The Major Premiership, Basingstoke: Macmillan, pp 45-7. Klug, F., Starmer, K. and Weir, S. (1996) ‘Civil liberties and the parliamentary watchdog: the passage of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994’, Parliamentary Affairs, 49, 4:536-49.   Lowndes, V. (1997) ‘Change in public service management: new institutions and new managerial regimes’, Local Government Studies, 23, 2:42-66.   Mandelson, P. and Liddle, R. (1996) The Blair Phenomenon: Can New Labour Deliver? London: Faber.    Nicholson, E. (1996) Secret Society, London: Indigo. Osborne, D. and Gaebler, T. (1992) Reinventing Government, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1994) ‘The hollowing out of the state: the changing nature of the public service in Britain’, Political Quarterly, 65:138-51. Rhodes, R.A.W. 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